Crucial yet Overlooked? Integrating and Evaluating Soft Skills Development in Higher Education for Student Well-being

Mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, and stress are prevalent among higher education (HE) students. Socio-emotional skills are essential not only for academic and professional success but also for mental well-being. Despite their relevance, sustainable approaches for developing these skills in HE remain limited, and evidence on effective training methods is scarce. This thesis aimed to develop, implement, and evaluate a novel multi-level approach to soft skills development for enhancing the mental well-being of HE students in the Netherlands, consisting of an introductory soft skills workshop (Level 1), intensive socio-emotional skills bootcamps (Level 2), and individual stress management training using virtual reality (VR) slow breathing biofeedback (Level 3). Chapter 2 explores HE students' experiences with an elective introductory soft skills workshop focused on self-reflection. Data were collected through two group interviews and a focus group. Inductive thematic analysis showed that HE students perceived to achieve personal growth, but experienced individual (learning) needs that should be considered when integrating soft skills development in HE. Chapter 3 evaluates the effectiveness of the same workshop embedded as a mandatory component in a bachelor's program in a pragmatic RCT. Analyses showed no significant differences between the intervention and wait-list control group on self-reflection, self-efficacy, or mental well-being. Sensitivity analyses indicated higher depression and stress in the intervention group. These findings suggest that while the mandatory format increased inclusivity, it did not lead to improved outcomes and even showed negative effects, highlighting the complexity of mandatory soft skills training. Chapter 4 explores students' and lecturers' experiences with socio-emotional skills bootcamps in both mandatory and elective formats. Semi-structured interviews across two cycles showed the personal nature of soft skills training focused on socio-emotional skills embedded in a bachelor’s curriculum, with an elective format supporting more meaningful learning environments than the mandatory format. Furthermore, continuity in reflection, guidance, and practice is essential for soft skills development. Chapter 5 systematically reviews the effectiveness of VR breathing interventions compared to non-VR alternatives. Of 2,848 records identified, six RCTs were included, five of which were meta-analysed. Results indicate that there is no evidence that VR breathing interventions are more effective than non-VR in improving overall mental health, stress, anxiety, mood, HR, or HRV. There was also no evidence that participants liked VR breathing interventions more than non-VR, or that they would use them more in the future. Chapter 6 evaluates the preliminary feasibility of a multi-session VR slow breathing biofeedback training in an ongoing proof-of-concept RCT. Participants were randomised to 8 sessions of VR or 2D screen biofeedback training over 3 to 5 weeks. The training was largely feasible, though low enrolment rates highlighted the need to refine recruitment strategies and intervention length. Chapter 7 integrates the main findings and discusses implications for practice and future research. Findings show that soft skills development is a highly individualized process requiring flexible, personalized, and inclusive strategies. Motivation is crucial across implementation formats, and embedding programs within curricula through flexible learning paths is recommended. Future research should clarify the duration, intensity, and conditions under which socio-emotional skills training can most effectively support student well-being.