Forgiveness and Social Hierarchy in the New Testament: Revisiting the Keene Thesis

In a small number of publications, Frederick ('Fred') W. Keene has proposed a new understanding of how forgiveness works in the New Testament; his work is currently being received in both New Testament studies and related disciplines, in particular also in practical and systematic theological studies, in which it is often referred to as a standard (or at least eminently viable) opinion. His work and his thesis concerning forgiveness have, therefore, a considerable impact and should accordingly be taken seriously as an exegetical conversation partner, which, so far, has hardly been done. The core of his thesis is that forgiveness is only possible in a hierarchical relationship. This contribution introduces Keene's central thesis, considers its substantiation and then analyses it in the sense of a critical evaluation, focusing on aspects, which have to do with (a) grammar and linguistics; (b) the linguistic creation of egalitarian relationships; (c) the intersectionality of intra-human hierarchies; (d) the role of martyrs in relation to forgiveness. In discussing these, incidental alternatives to Keene's exegetical choices will be offered. This approach also means that this contribution cannot do justice to the full scope of topics and themes associated with 'forgiveness' in the New Testament, but will remain focused on Keene's work, although the conclusions move beyond it as they also present the insights gained with regard to forgiveness in early Christianity through a critical interaction with Keene's work and the texts that he appeals to.