Geloof in burgerschap: Burgerschapsonderwijs op islamitische basisscholen in Nederland

This dissertation examines how Islamic primary schools in the Netherlands shape citizenship education. Like all schools, they are legally required to provide citizenship instruction. In recent decades, public and political debates about citizenship education have intensified, often suggesting that children from Muslim backgrounds are in particular need of civic formation. Because many of these children attend Islamic schools, these schools have come under heightened scrutiny. A recurring question is whether they transmit the “right” civic values. Islamic schools thus operate within a field of tension, they aim to affirm and strengthen their pupils’ Islamic identity while also preparing them for participation in a pluralistic society. Although Islamic schools have been studied before, little research has examined their everyday classroom practices. Given their politically and socially charged context, it is crucial to understand what happens in classrooms, what is taught and how. This study addresses that gap by focusing on citizenship education, where these tensions are most visible. The central research question is: How do teachers at Islamic primary schools in the Netherlands perceive the complex circumstances in which these schools operate, how does this perception shape their understanding of citizenship, and how is this reflected in their citizenship education practices? The research is based on classroom ethnography conducted at several Islamic primary schools, supplemented by interviews and analysis of teaching materials. Adopting an educational-anthropological perspective, the study does not evaluate pedagogical effectiveness or learning outcomes. Instead, it seeks to understand teachers’ perspectives and practices as culturally and socially situated. The findings show that Islamic primary schools function as safe spaces where religious identity is affirmed while pupils are simultaneously prepared for life in a diverse society. Teachers work from the premise that their students, regardless of background, should be able to participate in society like any other child. They therefore employ a pedagogy of plurality, an approach that emphasizes respect for diversity and the development of discursive competencies. Students learn to articulate and defend their identities within a pluralistic context without relinquishing their personal values. This pedagogical approach is illustrated through three case studies based on observed classroom discussions. Each case centers on topics where tensions between religious identity and civic expectations are particularly evident. The first examines a discussion of the U.S. travel ban on Muslims during Donald Trump’s first presidency, where students reflected on exclusionary rhetoric and learned to express experiences of discrimination constructively. The second focuses on a discussion about homosexuality, highlighting how students navigate religious norms alongside societal expectations and practice respectful dialogue in sensitive contexts. The third explores a conversation about headscarves, in which students engaged with complex questions of identity and recognition while learning to communicate their positions thoughtfully. The findings demonstrate that Islamic schools are not passive implementers of state requirements. Rather than seeking a compromise between religious and and societal expectations, they develop a pedagogical approach in which religious identity and social engagement both take center stage. Citizenship education in these schools is not a one-way adaptation to external norms, but a dynamic interaction between identity formation and societal participation. The principles of citizenship, as formulated by the state, do not necessarily exclude Islamic identity; they can be meaningfully integrated. This dissertation contributes to academic debates on religion and citizenship in education by shifting attention from policy discourse to everyday classroom practice. It offers an alternative perspective on Islamic schools, often portrayed as problematic in integration debates, and reconceptualizes citizenship as a dynamic and multifaceted process. In an increasingly diverse society, Islamic schools demonstrate how identity, plurality, and citizenship can be constructively interwoven without undermining either identity or social cohesion.