Social Entrepreneurship and Social Exclusion: A Multi‑Level Analysis of Education and Employment Initiatives in Amsterdam Zuidoost

This dissertation explores social entrepreneurship via four case studies to investigate how social enterprises operate in the domains of education, entrepreneurship and employment. The research focuses on Amsterdam Zuidoost, a district on the periphery of Amsterdam where approximately 60% of the residents have roots in either Suriname, the Antilles or Ghana and 40% face economic challenges. The research examines the defining features of social enterprise operating in a disadvantaged urban setting. It also develops improved tools to measure and evaluate their impact, with the goal of supporting more effective policies and professional practices. Amsterdam Zuidoost serves as a particularly relevant research setting due to its sustained policy focus on promoting entrepreneurship as a means of addressing social exclusion. The case studies facilitate close examination of how organizations manage tensions between autonomy and dependence, and how organizational form influences mission, governance, entrepreneurial logic, and stakeholder engagement. The study draws on a wide range of data, including surveys of participants and stakeholders, structured and semi-structured interviews with entrepreneurs, program managers, and community members, as well as direct observation of social enterprise activities. It also analyzes policy documents, municipal reports, and existing data on education, employment, and neighborhood development. The research highlights that real social change often occurs at the local level, even when policies focus on broader, high-level goals. To improve results, governments need to better coordinate with external partners, actively involve stakeholders, and assess public investments based on long-term, system-wide impact rather than short-term outcomes. They should also create space for experimentation and innovation. This requires clearer public leadership in guiding social and technological change, supporting local economic development, and encouraging wider public debate on how to invest in inclusive and sustainable growth. The findings show that the efficacy of social enterprises in addressing social exclusion is shaped by the interaction between government, stakeholder participation, organizational form, and entrepreneurial logic. Government support can act as a catalyst for social entrepreneurship, but it does not automatically lead to improved socio‑economic outcomes or democratic participation. Heavy reliance on government funding heightens organizational vulnerability, particularly as long‑term subsidies decline and procurement processes favor large, administratively capable actors. Although more limited government involvement allows greater autonomy and flexibility, social enterprises remain indirectly constrained by regulatory frameworks and an inability to leverage institutional support. Government support is therefore helpful but fragile and insufficient as a primary foundation. Stakeholder participation emerges as central to legitimacy, impact, and inclusion. Genuine involvement of residents, beneficiaries, and community members strengthens effectiveness across educational, entrepreneurial, and employment initiatives, while exclusion undermines outcomes. Organizational form further conditions autonomy and innovation: hybrid models that combine trading activities with external funding tend to be more resilient, whereas organizations that depend on a single revenue source face greater risks. Entrepreneurial logics each offer their own distinct advantages and structural limitations; bricolage enables responsiveness but constrains scalability; causation provides structure yet may obscure social complexity; and effectuation promotes adaptability while relying heavily on personal networks. Overall, the findings underscore the need for inclusive social enterprise governance, diversified funding, hybrid entrepreneurial strategies, and strong community foundations to support sustainable, locally grounded impact. The study concludes by summarizing key insights into how institutional, organizational, and individual factors interact in shaping social enterprise outcomes. It identifies the main characteristics and success factors of different types of social enterprises, evaluates their ability to address social exclusion, and offers practical recommendations for policymakers.